Working Papers #251 - 260
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Why Liberalism? State, Church, and Party in Western Europe
Andrew C. Gould
Working Paper #251 - April 1998
This paper is available in Origins of Liberal Dominance: State, Church, and Party in Nineteenth Century Europe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999.
Abstract
Liberal political reform fundamentally transformed Western Europe in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The success of liberal movements varied considerably from state to state, ranging from near complete supremacy in Switzerland and contested victory in France to conditional defeat in Belgium and co-optation in Germany. While comparativists have emphasized patterns of economic development or culture in explaining such variation, this paper argues that the success or failure of liberalism can best be explained through identifying the distinct patterns of church-state relations that shaped key social groups' attitudes toward liberal reforms. First, I show how the historical-institutional development of religious institutions determined whether actors such as clergy and provincial social groups decided to support liberal reforms. Second, I show that the support of these actors was essential to liberal movements' successes. Finally, I argue that Western European liberal development contains important lessons for scholars interested in liberal institution-building in new democracies. This paper also appeared in Origins of Liberal Dominance: State, Church and Party in Nineteenth Century Europe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999.
Resumen
La reforma política liberal transformó fundamentalmente a Europa Occidental en el siglo XD( y a principios del XX El éxito de los movimientos liberales varió considerablemente entre estado y estado, desde la casi completa supremacía alcanzada en Suiza y la disputada victoria en Francia, a la derrota condicional en Bélgica y la cooptación en Alemania. Para explicar esta variación, los comparativistas han puesto el acento en los patrones de desarrollo económico o culturales. Este texto sostiene, en cambio, que el éxito o el fracaso o el liberalismo pueden ser explicados mejor a través de la identificación de los distintos patrones de relación entre la iglesia y el estado que liberales. Primero, muestro cómo el desarrollo histórico-institucional de las instituciones religiosas determinó el apoyo o el rechazo hacia las reformas de parte de actores tales como el clero y los grupos sociales provinciales. Luego muestro que el apoyo de estos actores fue esencial para el éxito de los movimientos liberales. Finalmente, sostengo que el desarrollo liberal europeo-occidental contiene importantes lecciones para los especialistas interesados en la. construcción liberal de instituciones en las nuevas democracias.
The Catching-Up Debate: A Statistical Investigation
Prabirjit Sarkar
Working Paper #252 - April 1998
Abstract
The growth patterns during the last three decades are divergent. There was no catching up to the standard of living of the rich countries by the poor countries. The countries in the North do not exhibit any strong evidence of convergence among themselves. The countries in the South, on the other hand, experienced a strong force of divergence. This phenomenon of divergence has been noticed not only for the South as a whole but also for its different geographical regions, such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America (including the Caribbean).
Resumen
Durante las tres últimas décadas los patrones de desarrollo han sido divergentes. Los países pobres no han conseguido ponerse a la par de los niveles de vida de los países ricos. No existe evidencia significativa de convergencia entre los países del Norte. Los países del Sur, por otro lado, sufren el efecto de una poderosa fuerza de divergencia. Este fenómeno de divergencia ha sido registrado no sólo en el Sur como un todo, sino también en sus diferentes regiones geográficas, tales como Africa, Asia y América Latina (incluyendo el área del Caribe).
Horizontal Accountability and New Polyarchies
Guillermo O'Donnell
Working Paper #253 - April 1998
The paper is now available in Schedler, Andreas, Larry Diamond, and Mark Plattner, eds. The Self Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1999)
Abstract
The present text asserts that many new polyarchies, in Latin America and elsewhere, present the historically rather unusual combination of the coexistence of political -freedoms with weak 'horizontal' accountability. In order to account for this mix, the text delineates three great traditions, or currents-democracy, liberalism, and republicanism that, although partially overlapping, are distinct and have made different contributions to the emergence of polyarchy in the Northwestern quadrant of the world. Further on, the paper notes in many new polyarchies the relative strength of the democratic current jointly with the scant weight of the liberal and republican ones. In light of these considerations, the text concludes with some suggestions for enhancing horizontal accountability in these latter cases. This paper was also published in The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies. Andreas Schedler, Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1999.
Resumen
El presente texto afirma que muchas nuevas poliarquías, en América Latina y en otras regiones, presentan la históricamente inusual coexistencia de libertades políticas con débil 'accountability' horizontal. Para dar cuenta de esta combinación, el texto describe tres grandes tradiciones o corrientes-democracia, liberalismo y republicanismo-que, aunque parcialmente superpuestas, son distinguibles y han hecho contribuciones diferentes a la emergencia de la poliarquía en el cuadrante Noroccidental del mundo. Más adelante, el trabajo señala la. conjunción de corrientes democráticas relativamente fuertes y corrientes liberales y republicanos de escaso peso en muchas nuevas poliarquías. A la luz de estas consideraciones, el texto concluye con algunas sugerencias para aumentar la 'accountability' horizontal en estos casos.
Polyarchies and the (Un)Rule of Law in Latin America
Guillermo O'Donnell
Working Paper #254 - May 1998
This paper appears as the conclusion to the book, The (Un)Rule of Law and the Underprivileged in Latin America (Kellogg Institute Series with the University of Notre Dame Press: 1999).
Abstract
This paper contains studies of the often rather dismal inapplication of the rule of law, even under the presently existing polyarchies, in relation to various underprivileged sectors of Latin America. The paper discusses various conceptions of the rule of law and the estado de derecho and advances a conception of what these might mean under a democracy that universally upholds not only political but also civil citizenship. The incompleteness of civil citizenship in many polyarchies, old as well as new and not only in Latin America, raises some important questions, of both a practical and theoretical import, that the paper explores.
Resumen
El presente trabajo fué escrito como conclusión de un libro, de próxima publicación, The (Un)Rule and the Underprivilged in Latin America (Kellogg Institute series with the University of Notre Dame Press). Este libro contiene estudios que muestran una triste realidad: la frecuente inefectividad del estado de derecho en relación con diversos sectores minoritarios o excluídos en América Latina, inclusive bajo las actuales, poliarquías. El texto discute diversas concepciones del estado de derecho y propone una concepción del mismo en términos de garantizar universalísticamente no sólo la ciudadanía política sino también la social. Los severos recortes de la ciudadanía social en muchas viejas y nuevas poliarquías no sólo en América Latina, plantea algunas importantes cuestiones, de relevancia práctica y teórica, que el presente texto explora.
Iván Jaksic and Marcelo Leiras
Working Paper #255 - May 1998
Abstract
This paper examines the institutional options facing political and military leaders during the wars of independence in Spanish America in the early nineteenth century. The first point to be established is that these leaders did not set out with a preconceived republican model; rather, the first forms of autonomous government were intended to preserve the rule of Ferdinand VII while he was in captivity in Napoleon's France. The authors argue that as Ferdinand sought to return the Spanish American territories to the status quo ante after his return to Spain in 1814, Spanish American leaders entertained three institutional options: constitutional monarchy, centralist republicanism, and federalism. As the attempts to establish constitutional monarchies failed, the choices resolved into a contest between centralist and federalist republican models. The authors trace the intellectual sources of both and explore the linkages between classical and modern republicanism. They conclude that, while the postindependence pattern had become securely republican by 1830, it was comparatively more conservative than the American and French examples. The emphasis of Spanish American republicanism was on the preservation of order rather than on the creation of a new society, precisely because it came after the experiences of 1776 and 1789.
Resumen
Este trabajo examina las opciones institucionales que los líderes políticos y militares enfrentaron durante las guerras de independencia en Hispanoamérica a comienzos del Siglo XIX. La primera observación a realizar es que estos líderes no comenzaron con un modelo republicano preestablecido; sino que, mas bien, las primeras formas de gobierno autónomo tuvieron como propósito preservar el dominio de Fernando VII mientras éste permanecía cautivo en la Francia de Napoleón. Los autores sostienen que en tanto Fernando procuraba reestablecer el statu quo ante en los territorios hispanoamericanos luego de su retorno a España en 1814, los líderes hispanoamericanos consideraban tres opciones institucionales: la monarquía constitucional, el centralismo republicano y el federalismo. Puesto que los intentos por establecer monarquías constitucionales fracasaron, las opciones se redujeron a una compulsa entre modelos republicanos centralistas o federales. Los autores identifican las fuentes intelectuales de ambos modelos y exploran los vínculos entre los republicanismo clásicos y los modernos. Los autores concluyen en que el modelo político posterior a la independencia, aunque firmemente republicano, era más conservador que en los casos norteamericano y francés. El republicanismo hispanoamericano enfatizó la preservación del orden antes que la creación de una sociedad nueva, precisamente porque tuvo lugar luego de las experiencias de 1776 y 1789.
Paulo Sergio Pinheiro
Working Paper #256 - June 1998
A Portuguese version of this paper is now available as the introduction to Democracia em pedaços: Direitos humanos no Brasil, Gilberto Dimenstein (São Paulo: Compandria das Letras, 1996).
Abstract
Thirteen years ago the authoritarian regime in Brazil came to an end and the civilian transition government was installed. Three years later the Constitution of 1988 was promulgated with the most comprehensive and specific bill of rights in Brazilian political history. Today, despite the democratic guarantees in effect since then, the country is still ravaged by systemic violence in which the arbitrary actions of State institutions are combined with high rates of violent criminality, organized crime, intense physical aggression in conflicts among citizens, and a climate of generalized impunity. This paper evaluates the improvements in terms of political and civil rights that democratization has brought to Brazil as well as the serious problems that remain. The author raises the issue of the links between violence and economic and social inequality and examines the actual practice of the institutions that are supposed to apply the rule of law equally to all citizens-the police, the judicial system, and prisons. In conclusion he comments on the important roles of both civil society and the state in raising awareness of and upholding human rights.
Resumen
Hace trece años el régimen autoritario en Brasil llegaba a su fin y asumía el gobierno civil de transición. Tres años más tarde se promulgó la Constitución de 1988 con la declaración de derechos más comprehensiva y específica de la historia política brasileña. Hoy, a pesar de las garantías democráticas vigentes desde entonces, el país continúa siendo devastado por una violencia sistemática en la que las acciones arbitrarias de las instituciones del Estado se combinan con altas tasas de criminalidad violenta, crimen organizado, intensa agresión física en los conflictos entre los ciudadanos y un clima de impunidad generalizada. Este artículo evalúa las mejoras que la democratización ha traído a Brasil en términos de derechos sociales y políticos así como los serios problemas que aún persisten. El autor señala los vínculos entre la violencia y la desigualdad económica y social y examina la actual práctica de las instituciones que, se supone, deberían aplicar el imperio de la ley igualmente a todos los ciudadanos: la policía, el sistema judicial y las prisiones. Concluyendo, el autor comenta sobre los importantes roles tanto de la sociedad civil como del estado en la concientización y la defensa de los derechos humanos.
Carol D. Stuart
Working Paper #257 - June 1998
SEPTEMBER 1997
PROGRAM FOR THE ACADEMIC WORKSHOP ON
THE CHANGING STATUS OF CHILDREN IN LATIN AMERICA:
ISSUES IN CHILD HEALTH AND CHILDREN'S RIGHTS
I. The Changing Face of Malnutrition in Latin America
Chair: Alex Malaspina, International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI), USA
Overview of Malnutrition in Latin America
Author: Alejandro O'Donnell, CESNI, Argentina
Discussant: Aaron Lechtig, Regional Advisor on Health and Nutrition, UNICEF, Colombia
Residual Undernutrition Issues: Micronutrient Malnutrition
Panel: Wilma Freire, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)
Tomás Walter, INTA, University of Chile
Nelly Zavaleta, Instituto de Investigación Nutricional, Peru
II. Feeding Practices and Environmental Sanitation
Chair: Frederick L. Trowbridge, Nutrition and Health Promotion Program, ILSI, USA
Breastfeeding and Appropriate Complementary Feeding Practices
Author: Ana María Aguilar, BASICS, Bolivia
Discussant: Helen Armstrong, Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative, UNICEF
Environmental Sanitation and Its Relation to Child Health
Author: Dennis B. Warner, Rural Environmental Health, World Health Organization (WHO)
Discussant: Steven Esrey, Project Information Management Unit, UNICEF
III. Bridging Issues of Child Health and Juvenile Rights
Chair: Dinah Shelton, University of Notre Dame Law School
The Agendas and Priorities of International Agencies Working with Children and Children's Issues
Author: Michael Heisler, Task Force for Child Survival and Development,
The Carter Center, USA
Discussant: Bruce Corrie, Concordia University, St. Paul, USA
The Epidemic of Violence
Author: Rodrigo Guerrero, PAHO; former mayor of Cali, Colombia
Discussant: Mary Ana Beloff, Faculty of Penal Law, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
IV. Childhood, Citizenship, and Democracy
Chair: Scott Mainwaring, University of Notre Dame
The Child as Citizen and the Concept of Democracy
Author: Alessandro Baratta, University of Saarland, Germany
Discussant: Guillermo O'Donnell, University of Notre Dame
Integral Protection of Minors as Citizens
Author: Emilio García Méndez, UNICEF, Colombia
Discussant: Juan Méndez, Inter-American Institute of Human Rights, Costa Rica
V. Violence, Delinquency, and Penal Law
Chair: Emilio García Méndez, UNICEF, Colombia
Children and Adolescents in Conflict with Penal Law
Author: Miguel Cillero, UNICEF, Chile
Discussant: Alessandro Baratta, University of Saarland, Germany
Mortality Due to Violent Crimes: External Causes of Juvenile Death
Author: João Yunes, Bireme-PAHO; School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Discussant: Nancy Cardia, Center for the Study of Violence, University of São Paulo, Brazil
VI. Child Labor and Education
Chair: Errol Mendes, Human Rights Research and Education Centre,
University of Ottawa, Canada
Child Labor and Education in Latin America
Author: María Cristina Salazar, Defence for Children International, Colombia
Discussant: Walter Alarcón, International Consultant on Child Labor Issues, Peru
Grigorii V. Golosov
Working Paper #258 - September 1998
In a substantially revised form, the paper was published as "The Spanish Right and the Russian Left: Party Organization, Ideology and Electoral Success", Revista Internacional de Estudios Politicos/International Journal of Political Studies (Program of Political Studies of the State University of Rio de Janeiro, Vol. 2, No. 2, August 2000, pp. 325-353.
Abstract
This study employs the 'most different systems' research design to discuss the factors in the electoral success of four postauthoritarian parties: the Spanish Popular Alliance (1977-82), the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (1993-95), the Democratic Social Party/Brazilian Progressive Party (1986-94), and the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (1990-96). The analysis demonstrates that low availability of political resources inherited from the old regimes stimulates the parties' leaders to engage themselves in extensive party-building efforts. The resulting centralization of organizational power effectively allows the postauthoritarian parties to modify their programmatic standings, thus adapting themselves to the competitive political environments. In this sense, organizational development can be viewed as a factor responsible not only for ideological change but also for electoral success. The study demonstrates that this model can be used in causal explanations of postauthoritarian parties' development in several other countries.
Resumen
Este estudio emplea el diseño de investigación de 'sistemas más disímiles' para discutir los factores del éxito electoral de cuatro partidos post-autoritarios: la Alianza Popular española (1977-82), el Partido Comunista de la Federación Rusa (1993-5), el Partido Social Demócrata/Partido Progresista Brasileño (1986-94) y el Partido Comunista de Bohemia y Moravia (1990-6). El análisis demuestra que la baja disponibilidad de recursos políticos heredados de los viejos regímenes, estimula a los líderes de estos partidos a desarrollar esfuerzos intensivos de fortalecimiento de las estructuras partidarias. La resultante centralización del poder organizacional efectivamente permite a los partidos post-autoritarios modificar sus posiciones programáticas, adaptándose de este modo a los ambientes políticos competitivos. En este sentido, el desarrollo organizacional puede ser visto como un factor responsable no sólo del cambio ideológico sino también del éxito electoral. Este estudio demuestra que este modelo puede ser usado en explicaciones causales del desarrollo de partidos post-autoritarios en varios otros países.
Mariano Torcal and José Ramón Montero
Working Paper #259 - October 1998
This paper was also published in Jan V. Denth, Marco Maraffi, Ken Newton and Paul F. Whiteley, eds., Social Capital and European Democracy. London: Routledge, 1999. An updated Spanish translation can be found in "la Formacion y Consecuencias del Capital Social en España," Revista de Ciencia Politica, Vol. 1,2, abril 2000, pp. 79-121.
Abstract
This paper examines the distinctive patterns of the formation and evolution of social trust that explain the low presence of social capital in a new democracy. Despite the increase in the number of political and social associations since the return to democracy, Spain constitutes an example of low intensity equilibrium with low levels of interpersonal trust. These low levels of trust have not changed across different generations, an attitudinal continuity that seems to be due to a certain cultural legacy transmitted from generation to generation and has proved resistant to the major economic, social, and political changes of the last few decades. The authors maintain that this transmission might be explained by the political events most Spaniards experienced and/or received from their elders during their processes of socialization. Politics matter in the creation of social capital, albeit through the filter of political socialization. The lack of trust has contributed to the low presence of social capital, and both factors have a distinctive impact on Spanish democratic politics.
Resumen
Este artículo examina los patrones distintivos en la formación y evolución de la confianza social, los cuales explican la baja presencia de capital social en las nuevas democracias. A pesar del aumento en el número de asociaciones políticas y sociales desde el retorno a la democracia, España constituye un ejemplo de equilibrio de baja intensidad con bajos niveles de confianza interpersonal. Estos bajos niveles no han cambiado entre las distintas generaciones; una continuidad actitudinal que parece obedecer a cierto legado cultural transmitido de generación en generación y que ha probado ser resistente a los importantes cambios económicos, sociales y políticos de las últimas décadas. Los autores sostienen que esta transmisión puede ser explicada por los eventos políticos que la mayoría de los españoles vivieron y/o recibieron de sus mayores durante sus procesos de socialización. La política cumple un papel importante en la creación de capital social, aunque a través del filtro de la socialización política. La falta de confianza ha contribuido a la baja presencia de capital social, y ambos factores tienen un impacto singular en la política democrática española.
Rethinking Party Systems Theory in the Third Wave of Democratization: The Importance of Party System Institutionalization
Scott Mainwaring
Working Paper #260 - October 1998
This paper appears as a chapter in Rethinking Party Systems in the Third Wave of Democratization: The Case of Brazil: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Abstract
In this paper I argue that we need to rethink some important theoretical and comparative issues related to our broad understanding of party systems with a view to the experience of new democracies around the world. In particular, in light of what Huntington (1991) called the "third wave" of democratization, i.e., the period of democratization beginning in 1974, I argue that we must pay more attention to variance in levels of party system institutionalization. I propose analyzing party system institutionalization in four dimensions: (1) the stability of patterns of electoral competition, (2) the strength of party roots in society, (3) the legitimacy of parties, and (4) the structuring of party organization. Party systems vary significantly in their levels of institutionalization; most of the advanced industrial democracies have quite institutionalized systems, while most third-wave democratizers have less institutionalized systems. Weakly institutionalized party systems function in very different ways from well-established systems, and this has significant implications for democracy.
Resumen
En este texto sostengo que necesitamos repensar algunas importantes cuestiones teóricas y comparativas relacionadas con nuestro entendimiento general de los sistemas de partidos tomando en consideración la experiencia de las nuevas democracias. En particular, a la luz de lo que Hungtinton (1991) llamó la "tercera ola" de democratización-esto es, el período de democratización que comenzó en 1974-sostengo que debemos prestar más atención a la variación en los niveles de institucionalización de los sistemas de partidos. Propongo analizar la institucionalización de los sistemas de partidos en cuatro dimensiones: (1) la estabilidad de los patrones de competencia electoral, (2) la fuerza de las raíces de los partidos en la sociedad, (3) la legitimidad de los partidos, y (4) la estructuración de la organización partidaria. Los sistemas de partidos varían significativamente en sus niveles de organización; la mayoría de las democracias industriales tienen sistemas bastante institucionalizados, mientras que la mayoría de las democracias de la tercera ola tienen sistemas menos institucionalizados. Los sistemas de partidos débilmente institucionalizados funcionan de modos muy distintos de los sistemas bien establecidos, y esto tiene consecuencias importantes para la democracia.
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