Working Papers #151 - 160

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Statecraft, Social Policy, and Governance in Latin America

James M. Malloy

Working Paper #151 - February 1991

James Malloy is Professor of Political Science at the University of Pittsburgh and Research Professor at the University Center for International Studies.

Abstract

The paper develops an analytical framework designed to examine social policy as a strategic approach to issues of state-society relations and the problem of governance in Latin America. The paper argues that in Latin America and particularly Brazil social protection policy flowed from initiating capacity concentrated originally in the state, and specifically in a technobureaucratic elite connected to a strong executive. The policy, however, produced structures wherein initiative capacity was dispersed into a multiple of intermediate points at the nexus between the state and civil society. This in turn led to an immobilized dissipation of initiative capacity in this specific policy area which was symptomatic of, and reinforcing to, a generalized immobilism or power implosion that periodically has gripped these sociopolitical formations, producing shifts from formally democratic to authoritarian regimes and vice versa.

Resumen

El trabajo desarrolla un modelo analítico diseñado para examinar las políticas sociales como un acercamiento estratégico para las temas como la relación Estado-sociedad y el problema de la governabilidad en América Latina. El trabajo sostiene que la política de protección social en Latinoamérica y especialmente en Brasil, procedió de una capacidad inicial concentrada originalmente en el Estado, especificamente en una élite tecnoburocrática relacionada con un Ejecutivo fuerte. Sin embargo esta política produjo estructuras dentro de las cuales la capacidad de iniciativa fue dispersada en un múltiple de puntos intermediarios con un nexo entre el Estado y la sociedad civil. Ello a su vez llevó a una disipación inmobilizada de la capacidad de iniciativa en esta área específica de la política, que fue sintomática e impulsó un inmobilismo generalizado o una implosión de poder que periódicamente azota estas formaciones sociopolíticas produciendo cambios de democracias formales hasta regímenes autoritarios y vice versa.

(50 pages)

Argentina, de Nuevo

Guillermo O'Donnell

Working Paper #152 - February 1991

Guillermo O'Donnell, Helen Kellogg Professor of Sociology and Government and International Studies, is Academic director of the Institute.

Abstract

This paper attempts to throw light on the recent crisis in Argentina. The author argues that the crisis, in addition to its economic, political, and social dimensions, affected the state itself in some of its most constitutive aspects. A state that lacked both currency and the power of coercion aggravated the crisis to a paroxysm. The paper begins with an account of the transition to democracy, stressing the heavy inheritance of the military regime: upheaval of the economy; impoverishment of the state apparatus; decreasing salaries; and, of course, the weight of the external debt. This inheritance did indeed impose severe limitations on Alfonsín's government, but at least he could have avoided making the situation worse. Without attempting a complete analysis of the causes of the Argentine crisis, the author develops some aspects that have been significant in precipitating it and that might be of interest for understanding other transitions: "the curse of populism," "the aparatismo," and "a certain style of making economic policy" in Alfonsín's government. Together these errors added up to one of the most determinant causes of the current situation.

Resumen

El autor intenta arrojar luz sobre la reciente crisis en Argentina. Analiza que la crisis, más allá de sus dimensiones económicas, políticas y sociales, afecta al propio estado en algunos de sus aspectos más constitutivos. Un estado sin moneda se complementó con un estado sin capacidad de coerción, impulsando así la crisis hasta su paroxismo. Comienza por hacer un recuento de la transición a la democracia. Señala que a pesar de la pesada herencia que dejó el régimen militar-desquicio de la economía; empobrecimiento del aparato del estado; caída de los salarios; y, agobiante el peso de la deuda externa-, la cual limitó de mil maneras al gobierno de Alfonsín, éste por lo menos podía no haber empeorado la situación. Sin intentar dar una respuesta total al por qué de la reciente crisis en Argentina, el autor desarrolla algunos aspectos que han sido importantes en la precipitación de la misma y que pueden ser de interés para otras transiciones: "la maldición del populismo", "el aparatismo", y "cierto estilo de hacer política económica" del gobierno de Alfonsín. Este último aspecto contribuyó a uno de los errores más determinantes de la crisis actual.

(12 pages)

Wage Differentials and Efficiency Wage Models: Evidence from the Chilean Economy

Pilar Romaguera

Working Paper #153 - March 1991

Pilar Romaguera is a graduate of the Universidad de Chile and of Boston University and currently a researcher at CIEPLAN (Corporación de Investigaciones Económicas para América Latina) in Santiago de Chile. In spring 1989 she was a residential fellow at the Kellogg Institute.

To a large extent this paper summarizes and reviews parts of her thesis. It was written during her stay at the Kellogg Institute and she would like to gratefully acknowledge the hospitality of the institution.

Abstract

This paper conducts an empirical investigation of wage differentials and theories of wage determination for the Chilean economy. Competitive and efficiency wage theories of the labor market are examined and their implications for the existence of wage differentials are discussed. The investigation reveals the existence of statistically significant interindustrial wage differentials, and shows the consistency of their patterns across time, occupations, and firm size. It is not only the existence of wage differentials but also the regularities of their patterns that are particularly difficult to reconcile with a competitive explanation. Wages inside a firm are highly correlated across occupations, lending support to the hypothesis that equity considerations matter in wage determination. In agreement with other studies on wage differentials, the paper finds that high paying industries comprise large, capital-intensive firms, which are highly concentrated and earn above average profits. The extent to which this relation between wage differentials and firm characteristics supports efficiency wage models is discussed. In short, the behavior of the Chilean labor market poses a number of questions for the competitive hypothesis. The results of this research are consistent with the predictions of efficiency wage models.

Resumen

Este estudio realiza una investigación empírica sobre el tema de diferenciales de salario y teorías de determinación de salarios, analizando el caso específico de la economía chilena durante el período 1937-1987. El estudio examina tanto teorías competitivas, como teorías de salarios de eficiencia, y discute la relevancia de ambas en la explicación de los diferenciales de salarios. La investigación revela la existencia de diferenciales de salario estadísticamente significativos, y demuestra la consistencia del patrón de dichos diferenciales a través del tiempo, entre ocupaciones y firmas de distinto tamaño. Tanto la existencia de diferenciales de salario, como sus regularidades, son difíciles de reconciliar con explicaciones competitivas de determinación de los salarios. En particular, los salarios al interior de las empresas muestran ser altamente correlacionados, evidencia que apoya la hipótesis de que consideraciones de equidad son importantes en el proceso de determinación de las remuneraciones. En forma similar a otros estudios, encontramos que las industrias con elevados salarios relativos se caracterizan por estar compuestas por firmas de gran tamaño, intensivas en capital, con alto grado de concentración y utilidades superiores al promedio industrial. El estudio discute hasta que punto esta relación entre diferenciales de salario y características de la firma, apoya las hipótesis de los modelos de salarios de eficiencia. En resumen nuestro estudio demuestra que el comportamiento del mercado laboral chileno, en el período analizado, cuestiona la hipótesis de un comportamiento competitivo de dicho mercado. Por el contrario, los resultados de la investigación apoyan las predicciones de los modelos de salarios de eficiencia.

(41 pages)

When Failure Becomes Success: Class and the Debate over Stabilization and Adjustment

David F. Ruccio

Working Paper #154 - March 1991

David F. Ruccio is Associate Professor in the Department of Economics and Director of Latin American Area Studies at the University of Notre Dame and an editor of the journal Rethinking Marxism. He specializes in Latin American development, international political economy, and methodology. He has published numerous articles and chapters on those topics and has coedited (with Kwan Kim) Debt and Development in Latin America (Kellogg Institute series with University of Notre Dame Press).

He completed a book on alternative theoretical approaches and policy responses to changes in the world economy. This paper was published in World Development, 1991.

Invaluable criticisms and suggestions on earlier drafts were offered by Stephen Resnick and Richard Wolff. Previous versions were presented at the conference on "Global Imbalances: Alternative Perspectives on the International Economy" at American University, the conference on "Bringing Classes Back In" at the University of Kansas-Lawrence, the Economic History and Economic Development Workshop at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst, and the Economic Development Workshop and the Kellogg at the University of Notre Dame.

Abstract

This paper criticizes the current debate over stabilization and adjustment and develops an alternative, class-analytic approach. First, the respective theories and policy recommendations of neoclassical and structuralist economists are analyzed. Then, the paper considers the recent experiences of Argentina, Brazil, and Peru where orthodox and heterodox policies have been attempted and declared failures. Finally, it is shown that those failures with respect to employment, inflation, and the balance of payments become successes to the extent that they involve increasing exploitation and otherwise strengthening the class aspects of capitalism.

Resumen

Este ensayo critica el debate actual sobre la estabilización y el ajuste y desarrolla una alternativa, una investigación analítica de clase. Primero, se analizan las respectivas recomendaciones teóricas y políticas de economistas neoclásicos y estructuralistas. Después, el ensayo considera las recientes experiencias de Argentina, Brasil y Perú, donde las políticas ortodoxas y heterodoxas han sido intentadas y declaradas como un fracaso. Por último, se muestra que estos fracasos con respecto al empleo, la inflación y la balanza de pagos se han convertido en éxitos al grado que implican una creciente explotación y en general el fortalecimiento de los aspectos de clase del capitalismo.

(30 pages)

Industrial Organization and Comparative Advantage in Mexico's Manufacturing Trade

Jaime Ros

Working Paper #155 - March 1991

Jaime Ros Bosch, a Mexican economist, is Associate Professor of Economics and Departmental Fellow of the Kellogg Institute at the University of Notre Dame. He was senior researcher at ILET (Instituto Latinoamericano de Estudios Transnacionales) and former Director of the Department of Economics, CIDE (Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas), Mexico. He is a graduate of the Universidad Autónoma de México and of the University of Cambridge, England. He has done research and published numerous articles on Mexico's economic problems, applied macroeconomics, and industrial economics. He is currently working on inflation and macroeconomic policies in Latin America. In spring 1988 he was a residential fellow at the Kellogg Institute.

An earlier version of this paper was produced as a part of a larger research project on Industrial Organization in Mexico, at the Instituto Latinoamericano de Estudios Transnacionales (ILET), Mexico City. The present version was written during a stay at the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, University of Notre Dame. The author gratefully acknowledges the support and hospitality from both institutions. The ILET project provided much of the original data on which the paper is based; in this respect, he would like to thank Gabriela Dutrenit, Randolph Gilbert, and Susana Marvan for their excellent research assistance. He is also indebted for comments and suggestions to José Casar, Kwan Kim, Carlos Marquez, Juan Carlos Moreno, and Claudia Schatan, as well as to participants in seminars at ILET, Mexico City. The remaining errors are entirely his own responsibility.

Abstract

This paper examines some features of Mexico's foreign trade in manufactures from the perspective of recent developments in international trade theory, while bringing some characteristics of Mexico's industrial organization into the analysis. After a brief review of the applied literature on Mexico's foreign trade, the paper develops a taxonomy of manufacturing industries, according to the nature and volume of its foreign trade. This exercise, which relies primarily on the distinction between intra- and inter-industry trade, provides a framework for an analysis of the relationships between trade flows, economies of scale, and market structure conditions. This analysis is based on Industrial Census data for 1975 and 1980, and on foreign trade data for the 1978-1983 period. The final section summarizes the main research findings and conclusions, and an appendix explains in detail the methods and data sources.

Resumen

Este trabajo examina algunas facetas del comercio exterior de manufacturas de México desde la perspectiva de los recientes desarrollos en la teoría del comercio internacional, e introduce al análisis algunas características de la organización industrial de México. Después de una breve reseña en la primera sección, sobre la literatura aplicada al comercio exterior de México, la segunda sección desarrolla una taxonomía de las industrias manufactureras, de acuerdo a la naturaleza y al volúmen de su comercio exterior. Este ejercicio se basa principalmente en la distinción del comercio intra- e interindustrial y provee un marco de análisis, en la tercera y cuarta sección, sobre las relaciones entre los flujos comerciales, las economías de escala, y las condiciones estructurales del mercado. Este análisis está basado en datos del Censo Industrial de 1975 y 1980 y en datos del comercio exterior del período 1978-1983. La quinta sección resume los logros y las conclusiones principales y un apéndice explica en detalle la método y las fuentes de datos.

(29 pages)

Present Stages of Economic Reforms and Privitization Programs in Eastern Europe: The Cases of East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary

Lucjan T. Orlowski

Working Paper #156 - April 1991

Lucjan T. Orlowski is currently an American Council on Education and Faculty Fellow at the University of Notre Dame. His academic career began at the Academy of Economics in Katowice, Poland, where he received a doctorate in international economics. His dissertation focused on comparative systems of trade protectionism. In 1981 he was coauthor of a Solidarity sponsored draft on economic reforms completed at the Academy of Economics at Poznan. From 1981 to 1983 he was a Visiting Fulbright Professor at New York University Graduate School of Business Administration, where he taught and conducted research in international economics, finance, and banking. In 1983 he became a faculty member at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut, where he held the positions of Chairperson of the Department of Financial Studies and, more recently, of Acting Provost and Academic Vice President. His publications concentrate on issues of informational economics, decentralization and marketization of economic systems, macroeconomic stabilization, and trade policy.

Abstract

East European economies are in the process of experiencing an unprecedented transition from a central planning to a market system, parallel to the democratization of the political sphere. The main purpose of this paper is to show a sequencing of the economic deregulation and expectations at each stage of economic transformation. The author presents a critique of central planning and advocates a free market as a desirable direction for reform programs. Selected components of these programs are critically examined. Among them, far reaching and unrestricted privatization, discretionary monetary policy, full convertibility of domestic currencies and large-scale deregulation of businesses are favored. The author emphasizes the dangers for successful reform of excessive taxation, protectionism, and exaggerated regulatory involvement of governments. He advocates a comprehensive, gradually sequenced approach to reform programs somewhat different from the "shock therapy" proposed by several academic economists and government policymakers. The suggested transition to market structures is subdivided into three stages: 1. the period of decentralization of major pricing categories; 2. decomposition of monopolies and activation of competitive markets; 3. accelerated economic growth and capital accumulation. Anticipated patterns of inflation, exchange rates, interest rates, and national income are derived for each of these periods. The final section examines current problems of integrating the East German provinces and implementing reform programs in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. Concluding remarks focus on aspects of East European restructuring that may affect multinational firms' strategic plans for their involvement in this region.

Resumen

Las economías de Europa Oriental están en el proceso de experimentar una transición sin precedentes de un sistema central planificado a un sistema de mercado, paralelo a una democratización de la esfera política. El propósito principal del trabajo presentado es el de mostrar una secuencia de deregulación económica y de expectaciones a cada etapa de la transformación económica. El autor presenta una crítica al sistema central planificado y aboga por el sistema de mercado libre como una dirección deseada de los programas de reforma. Componentes selectos de estos programas son examinados críticamente. Entre éstos son favorecidas una privatización de gran alcance y sin restricciones, una política monetaria discrecional, la convertibilidad total de las monedas nacionales y una deregulación a gran escala de empresas. Son recalcados los peligros de impuestos excesivos, del proteccionismo y de las políticas regulatorias exageradas por parte de los gobiernos para asegurar el éxito de las reformas. El autor persigue un análisis comprensivo, de secuencia gradual de los programas de reforma, algo diferente a las "terapias de choque" propuestas por varios economistas académicos y políticos gubernamentales. La transición a estructuras de mercado sugerida se subdivide en tres etapas: 1. el período de decentralización de las categorías de precios principales, 2. decomposición de monopolios y activación de mercados competitivos, 3. una acumulación de crecimiento económico acelerado y de capital. Patrones de inflación anticipados, tasas de cambio, tasas de interés y de ingreso nacional son derivadas para cada uno de estos períodos. La sección final examina los problemas actuales para integrar las provincias de Alemania Oriental y los programas de reforms en Checoslovaquia, Polonia y Hungría. Las observaciones finales enfocan aspectos sobre la reestructuración de Europa Oriental que pudiesen afectar los planes estratégicos de empresas multinaciones relacionados a su involucramiento en esta región.

(23 pages)

Cuba y la Nueva Economia Mundial: El reto de la insercion en America Latina y el Caribe

Pedro Monreal

Working Paper #157 - April 1991

Pedro Monreal is a Research Associate of the Centro de Estudios sobre América (CEA) in Havana, Cuba. He is Adjunct Professor of the University of Havana and of the Institute for International Relations (Havana), and has written several articles and books on US-Latin American economic relations. In the fall 1990 semester he was a Fellow of the Kellogg Institute.

Abstract

This paper analyzes the challenges and opportunities that Cuba faces in the context of the recent developments of the world economy. Special attention is given to the issue of Cuban economic integration into Latin America and the Caribbean as a component of the restructuring of Cuba's external economic relations. This problem is currently discussed in Cuba as part of a broader debate on the restructuring of the Cuban socialist model.

Resumen

Este trabajo examina los retos y oportunidades que se les presentan a Cuba en el contexto de los más recientes desarrollos de la economía internacional. Se le dedica especial atención a la cuestión de la integración económica de Cuba en los marcos de América Latina y el Caribe como parte del inevitable proceso de rearticulación de los vínculos económicos externos de Cuba. El tema analizado forma parte de un debate más amplio que se desarrolla actualmente en Cuba acerca de la restructuración del modelo socialista cubano.

(23 pages)

Industrialists, Labor Relations, and the Transition to Democracy in Brazil

Leigh A. Payne

Working Paper #158 - April 1991

Leigh A. Payne is a Lecturer in Political Science at Yale University. She recently completed her dissertation on "Pragmatic Actors: The Political Attitudes and Behavior of Brazilian Industrial Elites" at Yale University. Her research focuses on business elites, particularly capital-labor relations, in the transition to democracy in Latin America.

She has an article in Comparative Politics on "Working Class Strategies in the Transition to Democracy in Brazil."

Abstract

This paper is a case study of Brazilian industrialists' attitudes towards changes in labor relations during the transition to democracy. It is based on extensive interviews with 155 industrial elites in Brazil during 1987-1988. It explores why business elites can and will tolerate democracy, even when it does not always act in their specific interests. It focuses on four key variables in the transition period: 1) the degree of radicalism in society; 2) the pace of change; 3) business elites' institutional channels; and 4) business elites' political strength.

Resumen

Este trabajo es un estudio sobre el caso de las actitudes de los industriales brasileños hacia los cambios en las relaciones laborales durante la transición a la democracia. Se basa en extensas entrevistas con 155 élites industriales en Brasil entre 1985-1988. Analiza por qué empresas élites pueden tolerar y toleran la democracia, incluso si no siempre responde a sus intereses específicos. El trabajo enfoca cuatro variables claves en el período de transición: 1) el grado de radicalización en la sociedad; 2) la pauta de cambio; 3) los canales institucionales de las firmas élites y; 4) la fuerza de las firmas élites.

(18 pages)

The Latin American Church in the Wojtyla's Era: New Evangelization or "Neo-Integralism"?

José-María Ghio

Working Paper #159 - May 1991

José María Ghio, a Residential Fellow at the Institute during the 1990 spring semester, has been Visiting Fellow at the Center for European and Latin American Research (EURAL) in Buenos Aires since 1988 and Assistant Professor in the Department of History at the Universidad de la Plata since 1983. From 1981 to 1983 he was Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Sciences at the University of Rio Cuarto in Córdoba. He has also been the recipient of fellowships from the Ford Foundation, the Organization of American States (OAS), and the Argentine Scientific Research Council. Among his articles is "Puebla and the Return to Democracy: The Argentine Church," in a book on the Latin American Church edited by Margaret Crahan (Columbia University: 1989).

Portions of this paper were presented at the conference "The Right in Latin American Democracies," April 20-21, 1990, Columbia University, New York. The author wishes to thank Ralph Della Cava, Scott Mainwaring, and Timothy Scully for helpful comments.

Abstract

This paper focus on two related topics: the ideological production of the Latin American Bishops Conference (CELAM) during the last two decades, and the dominant element that characterizes John Paul II's project for the Latin American Church. It attempts to show the institutional reaction to recent changes taking place in Latin American Catholicism. The author analyzes first how the conflict over Liberation Theology resulted in a program of systematic re-elaboration of the Social Doctrine of the Church, in which essential components of preconciliar Catholicism have re-emerged. Secondly, he examines the ideological foundation of what has come to be known as the "new evangelizing process." Here, he concentrates particularly on the analysis of the Theology of Culture and in the role it plays in the design of the new evangelization. Finally, the paper analyzes the "neo-integralist" elements that have emerged under the papacy of John Paul II.

Resumen

Este trabajo se concentra en dos temas relacionados: la producción ideológica de la Conferencia Episcopal Latinoamericana (CELAM) durante los últimos veinte años y los componentes centrales que caracterizan el proyecto eclesiástico de Juan Pablo II para la Iglesia Católica Latinoamericana. Se destaca la reacción institucional que acompañó a los recientes cambios del catolicismo latinoamericano. El autor analiza primero cómo el conflicto sobre la Teología de la Liberación implicó un programa de revisión sistemática de la Doctrina Social de la Iglesia, en donde han reaparecido elementos esenciales del catolicismo pre-conciliar. En segundo lugar, examina los fundamentos ideológicos, la denominada "nueva evangelización," deteniéndose especialmente en el estudio del rol desempeñado por la Teología de la Cultura dentró de este proyecto. Finalmente, analiza los elementos "neo-integristas" que han surgido durante el papado de Juan Pablo II.

(21 pages)

Reconstituting the Institutional Bases of Consent: Notes on State-Labor Relations and Democratic Consolidation in the Southern Cone

Paul G. Buchanan

Working Paper #160 - May 1991

Paul G. Buchanan is Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Arizona and previously served as Western Hemisphere Area Coordinator and Assistant Professor of National Security Affairs at the Naval Postgraduate School. He has held visiting appointments at CEDES (Argentina), IUPERJ (Brazil), the Center for the Study of Foreign Affairs, the Foreign Service Institute, the Department of State, and the Kellogg Institute (spring semester, 1989). He has written articles on labor administration, labor relations, regime change, state terror, corporatism, and authoritarianism in the Southern Cone.

This paper is part of a larger project titled State, Labor, Capital: Institutionalizing Democratic Class Conflict in the Southern Cone. Financial support for the project has been provided by the Naval Postgraduate School Research Foundation, the USIS Fulbright Research Fellowship Program, and the Heinz Endowment. Portions of the paper were written at the Center for the Study of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Service Institute, Department of State, CEDES (Buenos Aires), IUPERJ (Rio de Janeiro), and the Kellogg Institute, to whom the author is indebted.

Abstract

This paper examines the theoretical and practical problems involved in establishing the institutional bases for the achievement of class compromise in postauthoritarian processes of democratic consolidation, with particular reference to Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. Understanding that a democratic class compromise among the working classes, capitalists, and the state involves a mixture of dominant group concessions and subordinate group consent provided by an institutionalized range of choice that has the state as arbiter and enforcer of the specific terms of sectorial agreements, the paper explores the procedural and substantive issues involved, the institutional vehicles offered, and the structural and superstructural obstacles to the achievement of institutionalized forms of class conflict resolution in the Southern Cone. Attention is devoted to the nature of tripartite concentration, the role of national labor administration, and the dynamics of collective action in contexts of economic crisis and political reconstruction, with emphasis on the preauthoritarian legacies that impede or facilitate the establishment of consensual modes of sectorial strategic interaction. Tentative conclusions are drawn about the extreme difficulties of institutionalizing a durable democratic class compromise in countries such as those examined, and about the essential role of national labor administration as the key state apparatus involved in the pursuit of that objective.

Resumen

Este trabajo analiza los problemas teóricos y prácticos relacionados con el establecimiento de las bases institucionales para alcanzar un compromiso de clase en los procesos de consolidación democrática post-autoritarios, haciendo referencia particularmente al caso de Argentina, Brasil y Uruguay. Asumiendo que un compromiso de clase entre las clases trabajadoras, capitalistas y el estado implica una mezcla de concesiones de los grupos dominantes y el consentimiento de los groupos subordinados otorgadas mediante una serie de posibilidades institucionales que ponen al estado como árbitro y ejecutor de los términos específicos de los acuerdos sectorales, el trabajo explora los procedimientos y temas sustantivos tratados, los medios institucionales ofrecidos y los obstáculos estructurales y superestructurales para alcanzar formas institucionalizadas para la solución de conflictos de clase en el Cono Sur. Se da atención a la naturaleza de la concertación tripartita, el papel de la administración nacional de trabajo y la dinámica de acción colectiva en el contexto de la crisis económica y la reconstrucción política, recalcando los legados preautoritarios que impiden o facilitan el establecimiento de modos consensuales de interacción estratégica sectoral. Se esbozan conclusiones tentativas sobre las dificultades estremas para institucionalizar un compromiso de clase duradero en países como los analizados y sobre el papel esencial de las administraciones nacionales de trabajo, la clave del aparato estatal para alcanzar estos objetivos.

(43 pages)